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User:Phinumu/English dialects

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Chart

[edit]
Monophthongs of Scottish English (from Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006:7))
Monophthongs of Midwestern American English.Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009a)
Diphthongs of Midwestern American English.Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009b)
Monophthongs of RP. From Roach (2004, p. 242)
Diphthongs of RP. From Roach (2004, p. 242)
Monophthongs of Welsh English, from Coupland (1990:135)
Diphthongs of Welsh English, from Coupland (1990:135–136)
IPA: English vowels and diphthongs
Dia-
phoneme
Hist.
phoneme
RP
United Kingdom
WaE
Wales
ScE
Scotland
IrE
Republic of Ireland
GA
United States
CaE
Canada
AuE
Australia
NZE
New Zealand
Keyword Examples
æ a æ~a a ɐ̟ ɑ~a~æ æ æ æ,
æː[1]
ɛ TRAP lad, bad, cat[2]
ɑː or æ ɑː äː ɐː BATH pass, path, sample
ɑː ɑː ɑ~ä ɑ~ɒ PALM father
ɒ o ɒ~ɔ ɒ ɔ ɑ ɔ ɔ LOT not, wasp
ɒ~ɔ~ɑ[3] CLOTH off, loss, cloth, long, dog, chocolate[4]
ɔː au ɒː ɔː THOUGHT law, caught, all, halt, talk
ɪ i ɪ ɪ ɪ ɪ ɪ ɪ ɪ ɘ KIT sit
ɪj i i i ɪi̯ ɘi̯ FLEECE see
ɛː meat
ɛɪ̯ e eɪ̯~e eɪ̯~e æɪ̯ æe̯ FACE date
ai ei day, pain, whey, rein
ɛ e e~ɛ ɛ ɛ ɛ ɛ ɛ e e~ɪ DRESS bed[5]
ɔː əʊ̯ o oʊ̯~o oʊ̯~o əʉ̯~ɐʉ̯ ɑʉ̯ GOAT no, toe, soap
ou ou̯ tow, folk
əʊ̯~ɒʊ̯~ɔʊ̯ o~oə̯~oʊ̯ o~oə̯~oʊ̯ ɔʊ̯ ɔʊ̯ soul, roll, cold
ʌ u ə~ʌ~ɑ[6] ə~ɜ ʌ ɞ, ʊ ɜ ʌ ä ɐ STRUT run, won, flood
ʊ ʊ~ɵ̠ ʊ ʉ ʊ ʊ ʊ ʊ~ɵ̠ FOOT put
hood
ɵu̯ ʉː ʉː GOOSE through, you
iu ɪu[7] threw, yew
juː ju̟ː~jʉː juː (j)u̟ (j)u̟ jʉː jʉː cute, dew, ewe
ɑɪ̯ ai̯ əi̯~ae̯ ɔɪ̯ äɪ̯, ʌi̯[8] äɪ̯, ʌi̯[8] ɑe̯~ɑɪ̯ ɐe̯ PRICE my, wise, high

flight, mice

ɔɪ oi oɪ̯ ɒi̯ oi̯ ɒɪ̯~oɪ̯ ɔɪ̯~oɪ̯ ɔɪ̯ oɪ̯ oe̯ CHOICE boy, hoist
au̯ au̯ ɘʉ̯ æu̯~ɛu̯ äʊ̯~æʊ̯ äʊ̯, ʌu̯[8] æɔ̯~æʊ̯ æɔ̯ MOUTH now, trout
ɑr ar ɑː(ɹ) aː(ɾ) ɐ̟ɾ aːɹ~

äːɹ

ɑɹ ɑɹ äː(ɹ) ɐː(ɹ) START arm, car
ɪər eːr ɪə̯(ɹ)~
ɪː(ɹ)
ɪə̯(ɾ) iːɹ ~
iə̯ɹ
ɪɹ ɪː(ɹ)~
ɪː.ä(ɹ)
iə̯(ɹ)~
ɪə̯(ɹ)
NEAR deer, here
ɛər aːr ɛə̯(ɹ)~
ɛː(ɹ)[9]
ɛː(ɾ) eːɹ ɛɹ~
ɛɹ eː(ɹ)~
eː.ä(ɹ)
iə̯(ɹ)~
eə̯(ɹ)
SQUARE mare, there, bear
ɜr ur əː(ɹ)~
ɜː(ɹ)
ɜː(ɾ) ʌɾ[10] ɔɹ~ʊɹ[10] ɝ~ɹ̩ ɝ~ɹ̩ ɵː(ɹ)~
ɘː(ɹ)
ɵː(ɹ)~
ø̞̈ː(ɹ)~
œ̈ː(ɹ)
NURSE burn
er ɛɾ[10] ɛɹ[10] herd, earth
ir ɪɾ[10] ɪɹ[10] bird
ɔr or oː(ɹ) ɒː(ɾ) ɔɾ ɑɹ ɔɹ~ ɔɹ oː(ɹ) oː(ɹ) NORTH sort, warm
ɔər ɔːr oː(ɾ) oːɹ FORCE tore, boar, port
ʊər oːr ɵː(ɹ)~
oː(ɹ)[11]
ʊə̯(ɾ) uːɹ,
oːɹ
ʊɹ~ɔɹ~ ʊɹ ʉː.ə(ɹ)~
oː(ɹ)
ʊɐ̯(ɹ)
ʉː.ɐ(ɹ)
CURE tour, moor
jʊər iur jɵː(ɹ)~
joː(ɹ)
ɪʊə̯(ɾ) juɾ juɹ, joːɹ jʊɹ, jʊɹ, jʉː.ə(ɹ)~
joː(ɹ)
jʊɐ̯(ɹ),
jʉː.ɐ(ɹ)
pure, Europe
Dia-
phoneme
Hist.
phoneme
RP
United Kingdom
WaE
Wales
ScE
Scotland
IrE
Republic of Ireland
GA
United States
CaE
Canada
AuE
Australia
NZE
New Zealand
Keyword Examples
  1. ^ See bad–lad split for this distinction.
  2. ^ Often transcribed /a/ for RP, for example in dictionaries of the Oxford University Press.
  3. ^ ɒ~ɔ occurs in American accents without the cot–caught merger (about half of today's speakers); the rest have ɑ.
  4. ^ In American accents without the cot–caught merger, the LOT vowel (generally written o) appears as ɒ~ɔ instead of ɑ before the fricatives /f/, /θ/ and /s/ and the velar nasal /ŋ/; also usually before /ɡ/, especially in single-syllable words (dog, log, frog, etc.), and occasionally before /k/ (as in chocolate). See lot–cloth split. In American accents with the cot–caught merger (about half of today's speakers), only ɑ occurs.
  5. ^ Often transcribed /e/ for RP, for example in Collins English Dictionary.
  6. ^ The STRUT vowel in BrE is highly variable in the triangle defined by ə, ʌ and ɑ, see 'STRUT for Dummies'
  7. ^ In Welsh English, you, yew and ewe are /juː/, /jɪu/ and /ɪu/ respectively; in most other varieties of English they are homophones.
  8. ^ a b c Canadian English has a phenomenon called Canadian raising in which raised diphthongs [ʌi̯] and [ʌu̯] are found before voiceless consonants, as in right [ɹʷʌi̯t] and out [ʌu̯t]; in other environments, [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯] are used. In much of U.S. English, this happens with [ʌɪ̯], primarily when a voiceless consonant phoneme follows /aɪ̯/. For example, dike, life, and sight end with voiceless /k/, /f/, and /t/, so the diphthongs differ from those in wives and side, which have voiced /v/ and /d/. For some speakers, [ʌɪ̯] also occurs before voiced consonants when another syllable follows, but only when no morpheme break occurs; hence [ʌɪ̯] in tiger and/or spider, but [aɪ̯] in rider because -er is a separate morpheme. Most U.S. English distinguishes between writer [ˈɹʌɪ̯ɾəɹ] and rider [ˈɹaɪ̯ɾəɹ] purely based on this vowel difference.
  9. ^ While the actual pronunciation is [ɛə(ɹ) ~ ɛː(ɹ)], it can also be transcribed /eə(ɹ)/.
  10. ^ a b c d e f See Fern–fir–fur merger for this distinction.
  11. ^ Roach (2004) notes that many people in England use [] for this vowel, but also that RP traditionally distinguishes between maw /mɔː/ and moor /mʊə/, tore /tɔː/ and tour /tʊə/, as well as paw /pɔː/ and poor /pʊə/. If one wishes to make that distinction today it would be best to use ɵ instead of ʊə. This will lead to tore as toː and tour as tɵː.

Middle English vowels

[edit]

NOTE: In this table, abbreviations are used as follows:

Middle English, c. 1400 Modern English spelling, c. 1500 Early Modern English, c. 1600 Modern English, c. 2000 Lexical
Set
Example
/a/ a /a/ /æ/ TRAP OE mann > "man"; OE lamb > "lamb"; OE sang > "sang"; OE sacc > "sack"; OE fæþm "embrace" > "fathom"; OE sæt > "sat"; OE weax > "wax"; OE fǣtt > "fat" OE brēmbel (WS brǣmbel) > "bramble"
(w+, not +g,ck,ng,nk) GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ LOT OE swan > "swan"; OE wasċan > "to wash"; OE wann "dark" > "wan"; OE wæsp > "wasp"; OE wealwian > "to wallow"
(+r) /ar/ > GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ START OE heard > "hard"; OE ærc (WS earc) > "ark"
(w+ and +r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ NORTH OE swearm > "swarm"; OE sweart > old poetic "swart" >! "swarthy"; OE weardian > "to ward"; OE wearm > "warm"; OE wearnian > "to warn"
(+lC,l#) /ɔː/ THOUGHT OE smæl > "small"; OE all (WS eall) > "all"; OE walcian (WS wealcian) "to roll" > "to walk"
(+lm) GA /ɑ/, RP /ɑː/ PALM OE ælmesse > "alms"; Latin palma > OE palm > "palm"
(RP, often +f,s,th) /ɑː/ BATH OE glæs > "glass"; OE græs > "grass"; OE pæþ > "path"; OE æfter > "after"; OE āscian /ɑːsk/ > "to ask"; OE lǣstan /lɑːst/ > "to last"
/aː/ [æː] aCV /ɛː/ /eː/ > /eɪ/ FACE OE nama > "name"; OE bacan > "to bake"; OE æcer > "acre"; OE hwæl > "whale"
(+r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ SQUARE OE caru > "care"; OE faran > "to fare"; OE starian > "to stare"
/ɛː/ ea,eCV /eː/ /iː/ FLEECE OE specan > "to speak"; OE mete > "meat"; OE beofor > "beaver"; OE meotan (WS metan) > "to mete"; OE eotan (WS etan) > "to eat"; OE hǣtu > "heat"; OE hwǣte > "wheat"; OE lēaf > "leaf"
(+r) /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ NEAR OE spere > "spear"; OE hēr > "here"; OE hēran (WS hīeran) > "to hear"; OE rǣran > "to rear" ; OE ēare > "ear"
(occ.) /eɪ/ FACE OE brecan > "to break" /breik/; OE grēat > "great" /greit/
(occ. +r) /eːr/ > GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ SQUARE OE beoran (WS beran) > "to bear"; OE swerian > "to swear"; OE þēr (WS þǣr) > "there"; OE hwēr (WS hwǣr) > "where"; OE ǣr > "ere" (before)
(often +th,d,t,v) /ɛ/ DRESS OE leþer > "leather"; OE stede > "stead"; OE weder > "weather"; OE heofon > "heaven"; OE hefiġ > "heavy"; OE -sprǣdan > "to spread"; OE dēad > "dead"; OE rēad > "red"
/e/ e /ɛ/ /ɛ/ DRESS OE helpan > "to help"; OE elh (WS eolh) > "elk"; OE tellan > "to tell"; OE betera > "better"; OE seofon > "seven"; OE byrġan > "to bury" /bɛri/; OE cnyll > "knell"; OE cēpte > "kept"; OE mētte > "met"; OE clǣnsian > "to cleanse"; OE flǣsċ > "flesh"; OE lǣssa > "less"; OE frēond > "friend" /frɛnd/; OE hēold > "held"
(+r) ar /ar/ GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ START OE heorte > "heart"; OE bercan (WS beorcan) > "to bark"; OE teoru (WS teru) > "tar"; OE steorra > "star"
(w+ and +r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ NORTH AN werra > "war"; AN werbler > "to warble"
(occ. +r) er /ɛr/ /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ NURSE OE eorl > "earl"; OE eorþe > "earth"; OE liornian, leornian > "to learn"; OE hērde (WS hīerde) > "heard"
/eː/ ee,ie(nd/ld) /iː/ /iː/ FLEECE OE fēdan > "to feed"; OE grēdiġ (WS grǣdiġ) > "greedy"; OE dēop "deep"; OE fēond > "fiend"; OE bēon > "to be"; OE feld > "field"; OE ġeldan (WS ġieldan) "to pay" > "to yield"; OE wicu > "week"; OE pilian > "to peel"
(+r) /iːr/ > GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ NEAR OE bēor > "beer"; OE dēor > "deer"; OE stēran (WS stīeran) > "to steer"; OE bēr (WS bǣr) > "bier"
/i/ i /ɪ/ /ɪ/ KIT OE writen > "written"; OE sittan > "to sit"; OE fisċ > "fish"; OE lifer > "liver"; OE bryċġ > "bridge"; OE cyssan > "to kiss"; OE dyde > "did"; OE synn > "sin"; OE gyldan > "to gild"; OE wīsdōm > "wisdom"; OE fīftiġ > "fifty"; OE wȳsċan > "to wish"; OE cȳþþ(u) > "kith"; OE ċīcen > "chicken"; OE lȳtel > "little"; OE sēoc > "sick"; OE wēoce > "wick"
(+r) /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ NURSE OE gyrdan > "to gird"; OE fyrst > "first"; OE styrian > "to stir"
/iː/ i,iCV,y# /əi/ /aɪ/ PRICE OE rīdan > "to ride"; OE tīma > "time"; OE hwīt > "white"; OE mȳs > "mice"; OE brȳd > "bride"; OE hȳdan > "to hide"; OE ċild > "child"; OE climban > "to climb"; OE mynd > "mind"; OE ēage > "eye"; OE lēogan > "to lie" (deceive); OE tiġel > "tile"; OE liġe > "to lie" (recline); OE ryġe > "rye"; OE drȳġe > "dry"
(+r) /aɪr/ > GA /aɪr/, RP /aɪə/ OE fȳr > "fire"; OE hȳrian > "to hire"; OE wīr > "wire"
/ɔː/ oa,oCV /oː/ GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ GOAT OE fola > "foal"; OE nosu > "nose"; OE ofer > "over"; OE āc > "oak"; OE hāl > "whole"; OE camb > "comb"
(+r) /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ FORCE OE borian > "to bore"; OE fore > "fore"; OE bord > "board"; OE māra > "more"; OE bār > "boar"
/o/ o /ɔ/ GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ LOT OE god > "god"; OE beġeondan > "beyond"; OE gōdspell > "gospel"; OE fōddor > "fodder"
(GA, +f,s,th,g,ng) /ɔː/ CLOTH OE moþþe > "moth"; OE cros > "cross"; OE frost > "frost"; OE of > "off"; OE oft > "oft"; OE sōfte > "soft"
(+r) /ɔr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ NORTH OE corn > "corn"; OE storc > "stork"; OE storm > "storm"
/oː/ oo /u:/ /u:/ GOOSE OE mōna > "moon"; OE sōna > "soon"; OE dōn > "to do"; OE cēosan > "to choose"; OE (brȳd)-guma > ME "(bride)-gome" >! "(bride)-groom"
(+r) /uːr/ > /oːr/ > GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ FORCE
CURE
OE flōr > "floor"; OE mōr > "moor"; OE duru > "door"
(occ. +th,d,v) /ʌ/ STRUT OE blōd > "blood"; OE mōdor > "mother"; OE glōf > "glove"
(often +th,d,t,k) /ʊ/ FOOT OE gōd > "good"; OE bōc > "book"; OE lōcian > "to look"; OE wudu > "wood"
/u/ u,o /ʊ/ /ʌ/ STRUT OE bucc > "buck" /bʌk/; OE lufian > "to love" /lʌv/; OE uppe > "up"; OE myċel > ME "muchel" >! "much"; OE blysċan > "to blush"; OE cyċġel > "cudgel"; OE clyċċan > "to clutch"; OE dūst > "dust"; OE tūsc > "tusk"; OE rūst > "rust"
(b,f,p+ and +l,sh) /ʊ/ FOOT OE full > "full" /fʊl/; OE bula > "bull"; OE bysċ > "bush"
(+r) /ər/ > GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ NURSE OE spurnan > "to spurn"; OE ċyriċe > "church"; OE byrþen > "burden"; OE hyrdel > "hurdle"; OE word > "word"; OE werc (WS weorc) > "work"; OE werold > "world"; OE wyrm > "worm"
/uː/ ou,ow /əu/ /aʊ/ MOUTH OE mūs > "mouse"; OE ūt, ūte > "out"; OE hlūd > "loud"; OE ġefunden > "found"; OE hund > "hound"; OE fugol > "fowl"; OE drugaþ > "drought"; OE būgan > "to bow"
(+r) /aʊr/ > GA /aʊr/, RP /aʊə/ OE ūre > "our"; OE sċūr > "shower"; OE sūr > "sour"
(occ. +t) /ʌ/ STRUT OE būtan > "but"; OE strūtian > ME strouten > "to strut"
/ai/ [æi] ai,ay /eː/ /eɪ/ FACE OE dæġ > "day"; OE mæġ > "may"; OE mæġden > "maiden"; OE næġl > "nail"; OE fæġer > "fair"; OE weġ > "way"; OE pleġan > "to play"; OE reġn > "rain"; OE leġer > "lair"; OE leġde > "laid"
/ɔi/ oi,oy /ɔɪ/ /ɔɪ/ CHOICE
/ʊi/ oi,oy /ʊɪ/
/au/ au,aw /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT OE clawu > "claw"; OE lagu > "law"; OE dragan > "to draw"
/ɛu/ ew /ɪu/ /(j)uː/ GOOSE OE mǣw > "mew"; OE lǣwede > "lewd"; OE scrēawa > "shrew"; OE eowu > "ewe"
/iu/ u,uCV,eu,ew OE hrēowan > "to rue"; OE blēow > "blew"; OE trēowþ > truth; OE hīw > "hue"; OE nīwe > "new"; OE Tīwesdæġ > Tiwesdæġ > "Tuesday"
(+r) /(j)uːr/ > GA /jʊr/, RP /jʊə/ CURE
/ɔu/ ow /ou/ > /oː/ GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ GOAT OE cnāwan > "to know"; OE crāwa > "crow"; OE snāw > "snow"; OE sāwol > soul; OE āgan > "to owe"; OE āgen > "own"; OE grōwan > "to grow"; OE blōwen > "blown"; OE boga > "bow" /bou/; OE flogen > "flown"
/auh/ augh OE ([x] → ∅) /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT OE slæht (WS sleaht) + -or > "slaughter"
([x] → /f/) /af/ GA /æf/, RP /ɑːf/ BATH OE hlæhtor > "laughter"
/ɛih/ aigh,eigh /ei/ > /eː/ /eɪ/ FACE OE streht > "straight"
/iːh/ igh /əi/ /aɪ/ PRICE OE hēah > hēh > "high"; OE þēoh > þēh > "thigh"; OE nēh > "nigh"; OE reht > riht > "right"; OE flyht > "flight"; OE līoht > līht > "light"
/ɔuh/ ough OE ([x] → ∅) /ou/ > /oː/ GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ GOAT OE dāg > dāh > "dough"
(before cons. [x] → ∅) /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT OE āhte > "ought"; OE dohtor > "daughter"; OE þoht > "thought"; OE sōhte > "sought"
([x] → /f/) /ɔf/ GA /ɔːf/, RP /ɒf/ CLOTH OE trog > "trough"
/uːh/ ough OE ([x] → ∅) /əu/ /aʊ/ MOUTH OE bōg > "bough"; OE plōg > plōh > "plough"
([x] → /f/) /ʊf/ /ʌf/ STRUT OE ġenōg, ġenōh > enough; OE tōh > "tough"; OE ruh > "rough"

Origin of Vowels by Lexical Set

[edit]
Keyword GA RP Frequent origin Other origins
FLEECE ME /eː/ ME /ɛː/ usually
KIT ɪ ME /i/
NEAR ɪɹ ɪə ME /eː/+/r/ ME /ɛː/+/r/ usually
FACE ME /aː/, ME /ai/ ME /ɛː/ sometimes; ME /ɛih/
DRESS ɛ ME /e/ ME /ɛː/ before /θ/,/d/,/v/ sometimes
SQUARE ɛɹ ɛə ME /aː/+/r/ ME /ɛː/+/r/ sometimes
TRAP æ ME /a/
BATH æ ɑː ME /a/ before voiceless fricative
or n,m+voiceless consonant
ME /auh/→/æf~ɑːf/ sometimes
PALM ɑ ɑː ME /a/ before /lm/ "father"
START ɑɹ ɑː ME /a/+/r/
LOT ɑ ɒ ME /o/ ME /a/ after /w/, except before /r/ and velar consonants
CLOTH ɔː ɒ ME /o/ before voiceless fricatives ME /ɔuh/→/ɔːf~ɒf/ sometimes
THOUGHT ɔː ME /au/ ME /auh/ sometimes; ME /ɔuh/ before consonants;
ME /a/ before /l/ except sequence /alm/
NORTH ɔɹ ME /o/+/r/ ME /a/+/r/ after /w/
FORCE ɔɹ ME /ɔː/+/r/ ME /oː/+/r/ sometimes
GOAT ǝʊ ME /ɔː/, ME /ɔu/ ME /ɔuh/ sometimes
GOOSE ME /oː/, ME /ɛu/, ME /iu/
CURE ʊɹ ʊǝ ME /iu/+/r/ ME /oː/+/r/
FOOT ʊ ME /oː/ before /d/,/t/,/k/
ME /u/ after labial consonants, usually before /l/,/ʃ/
STRUT ɜ ɐ ME /u/ ME /uː/ before /t/ sometimes
ME /uːh/→/ɜf~ʌf/ sometimes
NURSE ɝ əː ME /e/,/i/,/u/+/r/
PRICE ME /iː/ ME /iːh/
MOUTH ME /uː/ ME /uːh/ sometimes
CHOICE ɔɪ ME /ɔi/, ME /ʊi/

Fate of Middle English Vowels

[edit]
Vowel Frequent
outcome
+/r/ +/h/ Conditional Conditional Alternate
a /æ/ /ɑr/ /ɔː/
/æf/
+l: /ɔ/
w_C (non-velar):
/ɒ/ /ɔər/
+lm: /ɑ/
_s,f,θ:
some dialects /ɑ/
/eɪ/ /ɛər/
ɛː /iː/ /ɪər/ +d,f,θ:
sometimes /ɛ/
/eɪ/
+/r/: /ɛər/
e /ɛ/ /ɑr/ /eɪ/ w_r: /ɔr/ +r: /ɜr/
/iː/ /ɪər/
i /ɪ/ /ɜr/ /aɪ/
/aɪ/ /aɪər/
ɔː /oʊ/ /ɔər/
o /ɒ/ /ɔr/ /oʊ/
/ɒf/
+cons: /ɔː/
+f,s,θ,ɡ,ŋ:
some dialects /ɔː/
/uː/ /ʊər/ +d,θ,f:
sometimes /ʌ/
+d,t,k:
sometimes /ʊ/
u /ʌ/ /ɜr/ /aʊ/
/ʌf/
b,f,p_l,ʃ: /ʊ/
/aʊ/ /aʊər/ +t: sometimes /ʌ/
ɔi
ʊi
/ɔɪ/
iu
ɛu
/juː/
ai /eɪ/
ɔu /oʊ/
au /ɔː/

Common English

[edit]
Common
English
c. 1400
Frequent
Spelling
Early
Modern
English
c. 1600
Early
Modern
English
c. 1600
Modern
English
c. 2000
Lexical
Set
Example
/a/ a /æ/ /æ/ /æ/ TRAP man, lamb, sang, sack, fathom, sat, wax, fat, bramble
(often +f,s,th) GA /æ/, RP /ɑː/ BATH glass, grass, path, after, ask, last
(+lm) /aː/ GA /ɑ/, RP /ɑː/ PALM alms, palm
(+r) /ar/ GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ START hard, ark
(+lC,l#) /au/ → /ɔu/ /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT small, all, walk
(w+, not +velar) /ɔ/ /ɒ/ GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ LOT swan, wash, wan, wasp, wallow
(+r) /ɔr/ → GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ NORTH swarm, swarthy, ward, warm, warn
/aː/ [æː] aCV /ɛː/ /eː/ /eɪ/ FACE name, bake, acre, whale
(+r) GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ SQUARE care, fare, stare
/ɛː/ ea,eCV /eː/ /iː/ /iː/ FLEECE speak, meat, beaver, mete, eat, heat, wheat, leaf
(+r) GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ NEAR spear, here, hear, rear, ear
(occ.) /eː/ /eɪ/ FACE break, great
(+r) GA /ɛr/, RP /ɛə/ SQUARE bear, swear, there, where, ere
(often +th,d,t,v) /ɛ/ /ɛ/ /ɛ/ DRESS leather, stead, weather, heaven, heavy, to spread, dead, red
/e/ e /ɛ/ /ɛ/ /ɛ/ DRESS help, elk, tell, better, seven, bury, knell, kept, met, cleanse, flesh, less, friend, held
(+r) /ɛr/ GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ NURSE earl, earth, learn, heard
(usu. +r) ar /ar/ /ar/ GA /ɑr/, RP /ɑː/ START heart, bark, tar, star
(w+) /ar/ → /ɔr/ /ɒr/ /ɔr/ → GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ NORTH war, warble
/eː/ ee,ie(nd/ld) /iː/ /iː/ /iː/ FLEECE feed, greedy, deep, fiend, be, field, yield, week, peel
(+r) /iːr/ → GA /ɪr/, RP /ɪə/ NEAR beer, deer, steer, bier
/i/ i /ɪ/ /ɪ/ /ɪ/ KIT written, sit, fish, liver, bridge, kiss, did, sin, gild, wisdom, fifty, wish, chicken, little, sick, wick
(+r) GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ NURSE gird, first, stir
/iː/ i,iCV,y# /əi/ ʌi/ /aɪ/ PRICE ride, time, white, mice, bride, hide, child, climb, mind, eye, lie, tile, rye, dry
(+r) /aɪr/ → GA /aɪr/, RP /aɪə/ fire, hire, wire
/ɔː/ oa,oCV /oː/ /oː/ GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ GOAT foal, nose, over, oak, whole, comb
(+r) GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ FORCE bore, fore, board, more, boar
/o/ o /ɔ/ /ɒ/ GA /ɑ/, RP /ɒ/ LOT god, beyond, gospel, fodder
(+r) /ɔr/ → GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ NORTH corn, stork, storm
(+f,s,th,g,ng) /ɔː/ GA /ɔː/, RP /ɒ/ CLOTH moth, cross, frost, off, oft, soft
/oː/ oo /u:/ /u:/ /u:/ GOOSE moon, soon, do, choose, groom
(+r) GA /ʊr/, RP /ʊǝ/ CURE moor, poor
(+r) /oːr/ → GA /ɔr/, RP /ɔː/ FORCE floor, door
(often +th,d,t,k) /ʊ/ /ʊ/ FOOT good, book, look, wood
(occ. +th,d,v) /ʊ/ /ʌ/ GA /ɜ/, RP /ɐ/ STRUT blood, mother, glove
/u/ u,o /ʊ/ /ʌ/ /ʌ/ STRUT buck, love, up, much, blush, cudgel, clutch, dust, tusk, rust
(+r) GA /ər/, RP /ɜː/ NURSE spurn, church, burden, hurdle, word, work, world, worm
(b,f,p+ and +l,sh) /ʊ/ /ʊ/ FOOT full, bull, bush
/uː/ ou,ow /əu/ /ʌu/ /aʊ/ MOUTH mouse, out, loud, found, hound, fowl, drought, bow
(+r) GA /aʊr/, RP /aʊə/ our, shower, sour
(occ. +t) /ʊ/ /ʌ/ GA /ɜ/, RP /ɐ/ STRUT but, strut
/ai/ [æi] ai,ay /ɛi/ /eː/ /eɪ/ FACE day, may, maiden, nail, fair, way, play, rain, lair, laid
/ɔi/ oi,oy /ɔi/ /ɔi/ /ɔɪ/ CHOICE
/au/ au,aw /ɔu/ /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT claw, law, draw
/iu/ u,uCV,eu,ew /iu/ /ju/ /(j)uː/ GOOSE mew, lewd, shrew, ewe, rue, blew, truth, hue, new, Tuesday
(+r) GA /(j)ʊr/, RP /(j)ʊə/ CURE
/ɔu/ ow /ou/ /oː/ GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ GOAT know, crow, snow, soul, owe, own, grow, blown, bow, flown
/auh/ ([x] → ∅) /au/ augh /ɔu/ /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT slaughter
([x] → /f/) /af/ /æf/ /æf/ GA /æf/, RP /ɑːf/ BATH laughter
/ɛih/ aigh,eigh /ɛi/ /eː/ /eɪ/ FACE straight
/iːh/ igh /əi/ /ʌi/ /aɪ/ PRICE high, thigh, nigh, right, flight, light
/ɔuh/ ([x] → ∅) /ɔu/ ough /ou/ /oː/ GA /oʊ/, RP /əʊ/ GOAT dough
(+cons.) /ɔu/ /ɔː/ /ɔː/ THOUGHT ought, daughter, thought, sought
([x] → /f/) /of/ /ɔf/ /ɒf/ GA /ɔːf/, RP /ɒf/ CLOTH trough
/uːh/ ([x] → ∅) /uː/ ough /əu/ /ʌu/ /aʊ/ MOUTH bough, plough
([x] → /f/) /uf/ /ʊf/ /ʌf/ GA /ɜf/, RP /ɐf/ STRUT enough, tough, rough

Additional lexical sets

[edit]

MAN: Bad–lad split, æ-tensing

BAG: æ-tensing

HANG: æ-tensing

WREN: Pin–pen merger

SING: raising of /ɪ/ before /ŋ/

LENGTH: raising of /ɛ/ before /ŋ/

HEAT: preservation of meet–meat distinction

CREAM: preservation of meet–meat distinction

PUT: lack of put-putt split

CHEW: preservation of you–yew distinction

BAIT: preservation of vain–vane distinction

KNOW: preservation of toe–tow distinction

SHIRT: preservation of fern–fir-fur distinction

EARTH: preservation of fern–fir-fur distinction

SOUR:

FIRE:

MOOR: